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* [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/quarry_inauguration.htm Quarry Inauguration]
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== Art and monumental constructions ==
With the re-unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Ahmose, a renewal of royal support for the arts and monumental construction occurred. Ahmose reportedly devoted a tenth of all the productive output towards the service of the [[Ancient Egyptian religion|traditional gods]],<ref name="Maspero">Maspero, Gaston. ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17324/17324.txt History Of Egypt, Chaldaea, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria], Volume 4 (of 12),'' Project Gutenberg EBook, Release Date: December 16, 2005. EBook #17324.</ref> reviving massive monumental constructions as well as the arts. However, as the defeat of the Hyksos occurred relatively late in Ahmose's reign, his subsequent building program likely lasted no more than seven years,<ref>Shaw, Ian. ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'' p. 209. Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> and much of what was started was probably finished by his son and successor Amenhotep I.<ref>Shaw, Ian. ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', p. 213. Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref>
Work from Ahmose's reign is made of much finer material than anything from the Second Intermediate Period, though the craftsmanship from his reign does not always match the best work from either the Old or Middle Kingdoms.<ref name="rice">Rice, Michael. ''Who's Who in Ancient Egypt'', p. 3. Routledge, 2001.</ref> With the Delta and Nubia under Egyptian control once more, access was gained to resources not available in Upper Egypt. [[Gold]] and [[silver]] were received from Nubia, [[Lapis Lazuli]] from distant parts of central Asia, [[Cedrus libani|cedar]] from [[Byblos]],<ref name = "Egypt. Museum 34001">Catalogue Général 34001, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.</ref> and in the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] the [[Serabit el-Khadim]] [[turquoise]] mines were reopened.<ref name="Grimal 200">Grimal, Nicolas. ''A History of Ancient Egypt'' p. 200. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988.</ref> Although the exact nature of the relationship between Egypt and Crete is uncertain, at least some [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] designs have been found on objects from this period, and Egypt considered the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] to be part of its empire.<ref name = "Egypt. Museum 34001" /> Ahmose reopened the [[Tura (Egypt)|Tura]] [[limestone]] quarries to provide stone for monuments and used Asiatic [[cattle]] from [[Phoenicia]] to haul the stone, according to his quarry inscription.<ref name="Quarry">[http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/quarry_inauguration.htm Quarry Inauguration], accessed July 28, 2006.</ref>
The art during Ahmose I's reign was similar to the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] royal Theban style,<ref name="Rusman211">Edna R. Russman et al. ''Eternal Egypt: Masterworks of Ancient Art from the British Museum,'' pp. 210–211.</ref> and [[stele|stelae]] from this period were once more of the same quality.<ref name="Grimal 200"/> This reflects a possibly natural conservative tendency to revive fashions from the pre-Hyksos era. Despite this, only three positively identified statuary images of Ahmose I survive: a single [[shabti]] kept at the [[British Museum]], presumably from his tomb (which has never been positively located), and two life-size statues; one of which resides in the [[New York]] [[Metropolitan Museum]], the other in the [[Khartoum]] Museum.<ref name="Rusman211">Edna R. Russman et al. ''Eternal Egypt: Masterworks of Ancient Art from the British Museum.'' p. 210–211.</ref> All display slightly bulging eyes, a feature also present on selected stelae depicting the pharaoh. Based on style, a small limestone sphinx that resides at the [[National Museum of Scotland]], Edinburgh, has also been tentatively identified as representing Ahmose I.<ref>Russman, Edna A. "Art in Transition: The Rise of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the Emergence of the Thutmoside Style in Sculpture and Relief", <cite>Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh</cite>. p.24–25. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2005. ISBN 1-58839-173-6</ref>
The art of [[glass making]] is thought to have developed during Ahmose's reign. The oldest samples of glass appear to have been defective pieces of [[Egyptian faience|faience]], but intentional crafting of glass did not occur until the beginning of the 18th dynasty.<ref>Cooney, J. D. ''Glass Sculpture in Ancient Egypt.'' Journal of Glass Studies 2 (1960):11</ref> One of the earliest glass beads found contains the names of both Ahmose and Amenhotep I, written in a style dated to about the time of their reigns.<ref name="Gordonp296">Gordon, Andrew H. ''A Glass Bead of Ahmose and Amenhotep I.'' p. 296. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, October 1982.</ref> If glassmaking was developed no earlier than Ahmose's reign and the first objects are dated to no later than his successor’s reign, it is quite likely that it was one of his subjects who developed the craft.<ref name="Gordonp296" />
[[Fájl:Jewels and Weapons of Queen Ahhotep.png|thumb|250px|The jewels and ceremonial weaponry found in the burial of Queen [[Ahhotep I|Ahhotep]], including an axe whose blade depicts Ahmose I striking down a Hyksos soldier, and the golden flies awarded to the Queen for her supportive role against the Hyksos]]
Ahmose resumed large construction projects like those before the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|second intermediate period]]. In the south of the country he began constructing temples mostly built of brick, one of them in the Nubian town of [[Buhen]]. In Upper Egypt he made additions to the existing temple of [[Amun]] at [[Karnak]] and to the temple of Montu at Armant.<ref name="Grimal 200"/> According to an inscription at [[Tura (Egypt)|Tura]],<ref name="Quarry"/> he used white limestone to build a temple to [[Ptah]] and the southern harem of [[Amun]], but did not finish either project.<ref name="Grimal 200"/> He built a cenotaph for his grandmother, [[Tetisheri|Queen Tetisheri]], at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].<ref name="Grimal 200"/>
Excavations at the site of Avaris by [[Manfred Bietak]] have shown that Ahmose had a palace constructed on the site of the former Hyksos capital city's fortifications. Bietak found fragmentary Minoan-style remains of the [[fresco]]es that once covered the walls of the palace; there has subsequently been much speculation as to what role this Aegean civilization may have played in terms of trade and in the arts.<ref>Shaw, Ian. ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt''. p208. Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref>
Under Ahmose's reign, the city of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] became the capital for the whole of Egypt, as it had been in the previous [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]. It also became the center for a newly established professional [[civil service]], where there was a greater demand for scribes and the literate as the royal archives began to fill with accounts and reports.<ref>Tyldesley, Joyce. ''Egypt's Golden Empire: The Age of the New Kingdom'', pp. 18–19. Headline Book Publishing Ltd., 2001.</ref> Having Thebes as the capital was probably a strategic choice as it was located at the center of the country, the logical conclusion from having had to fight the Hyksos in the north as well as the Nubians to the south. Any future opposition at either border could be met easily.<ref name="Maspero"/>
Perhaps the most important shift was a religious one: Thebes effectively became the religious as well as the political center of the country, its local god Amun credited with inspiring Ahmose in his victories over the Hyksos. The importance of the temple complex at Karnak (on the east bank of the Nile north of Thebes) grew and the importance of the previous cult of [[Ra]] based in [[Heliopolis (ancient)|Heliopolis]] diminished.<ref name = "Joyce2004 p100">Tyldesley, Joyce. ''The Private Lives of the Pharaohs'', p. 100. Channel 4 Books, 2004.</ref>
Several stelae detailing the work done by Ahmose were found at Karnak, two of which depict him as a benefactor to the temple. In one of these stelae, known as the "[[Tempest Stele]]", he claims to have rebuilt the pyramids of his predecessors at Thebes that had been destroyed by a major storm.<ref>Shaw, Ian. ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt''. p. 210. Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> The [[Thera eruption#Impact on Egyptian history|Thera eruption]] in the Aegean has been implicated by some scholars as the source of this damage, but similar claims are common in the propagandistic writings of other pharaohs, showing them overcoming the powers of darkness. Due to a lack of evidence, no definitive conclusion can be reached.
=== Pyramid ===
The remains of [[Pyramid of Ahmose|his pyramid]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] were discovered in 1899 and identified as his in 1902.<ref>[http://www.phouka.com/pharaoh/pharaoh/dynasties/dyn18/01ahmose.html Egyptian Pharaohs: Ahmose I], accessed July 19, 2006.</ref> This pyramid and the related structures became the object of renewed research as of 1993 by an expedition sponsored by the [[University of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]-[[Yale University|Yale]] Institute of Fine Arts, [[New York University]] under the direction of Stephen Harvey.<ref name="Harvey Expedition">[http://touregypt.net/featurestories/ahmosep.htm Ahmose Pyramid at Abydos], accessed July 22, 2006.</ref> Most of its outer casing stones had been robbed for use in other building projects over the years, and the mound of rubble upon which it was built has collapsed. However, two rows of intact casing stones were found by Arthur Mace, who estimated its steep slope as about 60 degrees, based on the evidence of the limestone casing (compare to the less acute 51 degrees of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]]).<ref>Lehner, Mark. ''The Complete Pyramids,'' p. 190. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1997.</ref> Although the pyramid interior has not been explored since 1902, work in 2006 uncovered portions of a massive mudbrick construction ramp built against its face. At the foot of the pyramid lay a complex of stone temples surrounded by mud brick enclosure walls. Research by Harvey has revealed three structures to date in addition to the "Ahmose Pyramid Temple" first located by Arthur Mace. This structure, the closest to the base of the pyramid, was most likely intended as its chief cult center. Among thousands of carved and painted fragments uncovered since 1993, several depict aspects of a complex battle narrative against an Asiatic enemy. In all likelihood, these reliefs, featuring archers, ships, dead [[Hyksos|asiatics]] and the first known representation of [[horse]]s in Egypt, form the only representation of Ahmose's Hyksos battles.<ref name="Harvey Expedition" /> Adjacent to the main pyramid temple and to its east, Harvey has identified two temples constructed by Ahmose's queen, Ahmose-Nefertary. One of these structures also bears bricks stamped with the name of Chief Treasurer Neferperet, the official responsible for re-opening the stone quarries at el-Ma'asara (Tura) in Ahmose's year 22. A third, larger temple (Temple C) is similar to the pyramid temple in form and scale, but its stamped bricks and details of decoration reinforce that it was a cult place for Ahmose-Nefertary.
The axis of the pyramid complex may be associated with a series of monuments strung out along a kilometer of desert. Along this axis are several key structures: 1) a large pyramid dedicated to his grandmother [[Tetisheri]] which contained a [[Stela of Queen Tetisheri|stele depicting Ahmose providing offerings]] to her; 2) a rockcut underground complex which may either have served as a token representation of an [[Osiris|Osirian]] underworld or as an actual royal tomb;<ref name="lehnerp191">Lehner, Mark. ''The Complete Pyramids'', p. 191. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1997.</ref> and 3) a terraced temple built against the high cliffs, featuring massive stone and brick terraces. These elements reflect in general a similar plan undertaken for the cenotaph of [[Senwosret III]] and in general its construction contains elements which reflect the style of both [[Old Kingdom|Old]] and [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] pyramid complexes.<ref name="lehnerp191"/>
There is some dispute as to if this pyramid was Ahmose's burial place, or if it was a [[cenotaph]]. Although earlier explorers Mace and Currelly were unable to locate any internal chambers, it is unlikely that a burial chamber would have been located in the midst of the pyramid's rubble core. In the absence of any mention of a tomb of King Ahmose in the tomb robbery accounts of the Abbott Papyrus, and in the absence of any likely candidate for the king's tomb at Thebes, it is possible that the king was interred at Abydos, as suggested by Harvey. Certainly the great number of cult structures located at the base of the pyramid located in recent years, as well as the presence at the base of the pyramid of a cemetery used by priests of Ahmose's cult, argue for the importance of the king's Abydos cult. However, other [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]] believe that the pyramid was constructed (like Tetisheri's pyramid at Abydos) as a cenotaph and that Ahmose may have originally been buried in the southern part of [[Dra' Abu el-Naga']] with the rest of the late 17th and early 18th Dynasties.<ref name="Grimal 200"/>
This pyramid was the last pyramid ever built as part of a mortuary complex in Egypt. The pyramid form would be abandoned by subsequent pharaohs of the New Kingdom, for both practical and religious reasons. The [[Giza]] plateau offered plenty of room for building pyramids; but this was not the case with the confined, cliff-bound geography of Thebes and any burials in the surrounding desert were vulnerable to flooding. The pyramid form was associated with the sun god [[Ra|Re]], who had been overshadowed by [[Amun]] in importance. One of the meanings of Amun's name was ''the hidden one'', which meant that it was now theologically permissible to hide the Pharaoh's tomb by fully separating the mortuary template from the actual burial place. This provided the added advantage that the resting place of the pharaoh could be kept hidden from necropolis robbers. All subsequent pharaohs of the New Kingdom would be buried in rock-cut shaft tombs in the [[Valley of the Kings]].<ref>Tyldesley, Joyce. ''The Private Lives of the Pharaohs'', p. 101. Channel 4 Books, 2004.</ref>
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[[Kategória:Fáraók|Jahmesz]]
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